Treatment of post-concussion symptoms is highly variable, and primarily directed at symptom relief, rather than at modifying the underlying pathology. Future directions including the identification of potential mechanisms, new imaging techniques, comprehensive, multidisciplinary assessment and treatment options are discussed. There are substantial limitations in research to date, resulting in gaps in our understanding, leading to uncertainty regarding epidemiology, etiology, prognosis, and treatment. Progress in understanding has been hampered by inconsistent classification and variable assessment procedures. Post-concussion symptoms are dependent on complex interactions between somatic, psychological, and social factors. Prevalence rates of post-concussion symptoms vary between 11 and 82%, depending on diagnostic criteria, population and timing of assessment.

syndrome, its diagnosis, etiology, prevalence, assessment, and treatment in both adults and children. We review current evidence and controversies concerning the use of the terms post-concussion symptoms vs. However, this term has been the subject of debate since the mechanisms underlying post-concussion symptoms and the role of pre- and post-injury-related factors are still poorly understood. Whereas, recovery can be expected in the majority of patients, a subset continues to report persisting somatic, cognitive, emotional, and/or behavioral problems, generally referred to as post-concussion syndrome (PCS). Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) presents a substantial burden to patients, families, and health care systems. 5Department of Neurology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.4Department of Emergency Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands.3Department of Pediatrics, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.2Institute of Medical Psychology and Medical Sociology, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany.1Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands.Haagsma 1,4, Ramon Diaz-Arrastia 5 and Nicole von Steinbuechel 2

Real 2, Amra Covic 2, Anastasia Gorbunova 2, Daphne C.

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